History Notes this week of July 12

• 988 – Traditional founding of Dublin, Ireland.
  Marks the traditional establishment of Ireland’s capital, which grew from a Viking settlement into one of Europe’s most historic cities.
• 100 BC – Birth of Julius Caesar.
  Roman general and statesman whose rise transformed the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire.
• 1040 – Lady Godiva’s legendary ride through Coventry.
  According to tradition, her protest against heavy taxation became one of England’s most enduring medieval legends.
• 1099 – Crusaders capture Jerusalem during the First Crusade.
  The victory established Christian control of the city but was accompanied by widespread bloodshed.
• 1191 – Siege of Acre ends during the Third Crusade.
  The surrender of Acre gave Crusader forces a critical Mediterranean stronghold.
• 1203 – Fourth Crusade captures Constantinople.
  The sack permanently weakened the Byzantine Empire and reshaped Eastern Mediterranean history.
• 1536 – Death of Erasmus of Rotterdam.
  The influential Renaissance humanist helped lay intellectual foundations for the Reformation.
• 1543 – Henry VIII marries Catherine Parr.
  His sixth and final wife survived the king and later became an important supporter of Protestant reforms.
• 1576 – Martin Frobisher sights Greenland.
  Part of England’s early efforts to find a Northwest Passage to Asia.
• 1606 – Birth of Rembrandt van Rijn.
  One of history’s greatest painters, celebrated for his portraits and mastery of light.
• 1690 – Battle of the Boyne commemorated.
  William III’s victory over James II became a defining event in British and Irish history.
• 1717 – First performance of Handel’s Water Music.
  Premiered for King George I during a royal procession on the River Thames.
• 1762 – Catherine the Great becomes Empress of Russia.
  Her reign transformed Russia into one of Europe’s dominant powers.
• 1769 – Mission San Diego de Alcalá founded.
  The first of California’s 21 Spanish missions, laying the foundation for many future cities.
• 1776 – Captain James Cook begins his third Pacific voyage.
  His final expedition sought the Northwest Passage and expanded European geographic knowledge.
• 1778 – France declares war on Great Britain.
  French intervention proved crucial to the American Revolution but worsened France’s financial crisis.
• 1789 – Jacques Necker dismissed as French finance minister.
  His removal fueled unrest that helped spark the French Revolution.
• 1793 – Jean-Paul Marat assassinated.
  One of the Revolution’s most famous political killings, immortalized in Jacques-Louis David’s painting.
• 1793 – Charlotte Corday executed.
  Four days after killing Marat, she was guillotined and became a lasting symbol of resistance to the Reign of Terror.
• 1798 – Alien and Sedition Acts signed into law.
  The controversial legislation limited criticism of the federal government during tensions with France.
• 1799 – Rosetta Stone discovered in Egypt.
  The artifact ultimately unlocked the translation of Egyptian hieroglyphics.
• 1804 – Death of Alexander Hamilton.
  The Founding Father died one day after his duel with Vice President Aaron Burr.
• 1815 – Napoleon surrenders to the British.
  His exile to Saint Helena ended the Napoleonic Wars.
• 1853 – Commodore Matthew Perry arrives in Japan.
  His mission began the process of opening Japan to Western trade.
• 1854 – Birth of George Eastman.
  Founder of Kodak, whose innovations made photography accessible to the public.
• 1856 – Birth of Nikola Tesla.
  Pioneer of alternating current electrical systems and one of history’s most influential inventors.
• 1859 – Charles Dickens publishes A Tale of Two Cities.
  The novel became one of the definitive literary works about the French Revolution.
• 1861 – Union Army begins march toward Manassas.
  The campaign led to the First Battle of Bull Run, the Civil War’s first major battle.
• 1862 – David Farragut promoted to Rear Admiral.
  He became the U.S. Navy’s first flag officer.
• 1863 – New York City Draft Riots begin.
  Violent opposition to Civil War conscription left more than 100 people dead.
• 1870 – Death of Rear Adm. John A. Dahlgren.
  His naval artillery designs significantly modernized the U.S. Navy.
• 1870 – Georgia readmitted to the Union.
  The last former Confederate state to regain representation after the Civil War.
• 1914 – Babe Ruth makes his Major League debut.
  The future baseball legend began his career as a pitcher with Boston.
• 1917 – British royal family adopts the name Windsor.
  The change distanced the monarchy from its German roots during World War I.
• 1921 – William Howard Taft becomes Chief Justice.
  The only American to serve as both president and chief justice.
• 1922 – Hollywood Bowl opens.
  It became one of America’s premier outdoor concert venues.
• 1923 – Hollywood sign dedicated.
  Originally reading “Hollywoodland,” it became an international symbol of the film industry.
• 1925 – Scopes “Monkey Trial” begins.
  The case ignited a national debate over evolution and education.
• 1938 – “Wrong-Way” Corrigan flies to Ireland.
  His supposedly accidental transatlantic flight made him an American folk hero.
• 1940 – Battle of Britain begins.
  Germany launched its first major air offensive against Britain.
• 1941 – Joe DiMaggio reaches 56-game hitting streak.
  A Major League Baseball record that still stands.
• 1942 – German assault on Stalingrad begins.
  The campaign evolved into one of World War II’s bloodiest turning points.
• 1943 – Battle of Prokhorovka.
  The largest tank battle in history occurred during the Battle of Kursk.
• 1945 – Potsdam Conference opens.
  Allied leaders planned post-war Europe following Germany’s defeat.
• 1945 – Trinity nuclear test.
  The world’s first successful atomic bomb test ushered in the nuclear age.
• 1946 – Linda Ronstadt born.
  One of the most successful American recording artists of the 20th century.
• 1947 – Death of Raoul Wallenberg (official Soviet account).
  The Swedish diplomat saved thousands of Jews during the Holocaust, though the circumstances of his death remain disputed.
• 1948 – Death of Gen. John J. Pershing.
  Commander of American Expeditionary Forces during World War I.
• 1955 – Volkswagen introduces the Karmann Ghia.
  The stylish sports coupe became an automotive icon.
• 1955 – Disneyland opens in California.
  Walt Disney’s original theme park forever changed the entertainment industry.
• 1958 – Iraqi monarchy overthrown.
  A military coup ended the Hashemite Kingdom and reshaped Middle Eastern politics.
• 1960 – First underwater Polaris missile launch.
  Demonstrated the effectiveness of submarine-launched nuclear deterrence.
• 1962 – TELSTAR satellite launched.
  The first active communications satellite revolutionized global broadcasting.
• 1969 – Apollo 11 launches to the Moon.
  The mission culminated in humanity’s first lunar landing.
• 1975 – Apollo-Soyuz Test Project.
  The first joint U.S.-Soviet space mission symbolized Cold War cooperation.
• 1979 – Sandinistas seize power in Nicaragua.
  Daniel Ortega’s revolutionary government replaced the Somoza dictatorship.
• 1985 – Rainbow Warrior bombed in New Zealand.
  French intelligence agents sank Greenpeace’s flagship during protests against nuclear testing.
• 1996 – TWA Flight 800 crashes.
  The explosion shortly after takeoff from New York killed all 230 aboard and prompted one of the largest aviation investigations in U.S. history.

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